Liquid crystal elastomers

ABSTRACT

Shape-programmable liquid crystal elastomers. The shape-programmable liquid crystal elastomers being synthesized by filling an alignment cell with liquid crystal monomers. The liquid crystal monomers align to a surface of the alignment cell and then are polymerized with a dithiol chain transfer agent. The alignment cell is configured to impose a director orientation on a portion of the shape-programmable liquid crystal elastomer. For some embodiments, liquid crystal elastomer laminates are prepared by arranging a plurality of liquid crystal elastomers such that a director orientation of each liquid crystal elastomer of the plurality is in registered alignment with an adjacent liquid crystal elastomer of the plurality. The arrangement is secured and the plurality of liquid crystal elastomers cured.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.16/653,876 filed on 15 Oct. 2019, which claimed the benefit of andpriority to prior filed Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/745,832,filed 15 Oct. 2018. The contents of these applications are herebyincorporated herein by reference, each in its entirety.

RIGHTS OF THE GOVERNMENT

The invention described herein may be manufactured and used by or forthe Government of the United States for all governmental purposeswithout the payment of any royalty.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to elastomers and, moreparticularly, to liquid crystal elastomers.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Preprogramming complex mechanical responses into soft materials is atopic of considerable interest within the scientific community. Spatialorganization of monomeric (oligomeric) precursors to form anisotropicpolymeric materials have been discussed as potential paradigm shifts instimuli-responsive drug delivery, sensing, and soft robotics. While manyapproaches have been explored in the literature, three key aspects arequintessential to the design and implementation of novel,multifunctional material platforms: (1) facile synthetic strategies, (2)processability, and (3) local regulation and control of the mechanicalproperties.

Liquid crystalline elastomers (“LCEs”) have garnered significantattention in the past decade due to their nonlinear mechanicaldeformation and dramatic stimuli-induced deformation. The primaryapproach to prepare LCEs is via hydrosilylation of olefinic liquidcrystalline monomers to produce polysiloxane elastomers. Polysiloxaneelastomers are widely recognized for their high extensibilities and lowmoduli, largely attributable to Si—O—Si bond within the polymerbackbone. However, alignment of polysiloxane LCEs has been limited tomechanical loading either during or after preparation to align themesogens to the strain direction.

Liquid crystalline monomers (“LCMs”) capable of free-radicalphotopolymerization (such as the commercially available diacrylatesillustrated in FIG. 1) have been investigated for more than 30 years dueto their straightforward fabrication and compelling optical, thermal,and mechanical properties. Prior examination of these materials haveprimarily focused on homopolymerization of difunctional LCMs to produceglassy liquid crystalline polymer networks (LCNs). Glassy LCNs retainthe optical properties of the LCM in robust films enabling end use aslight control films in displays. LCMs are readily amenable to surfacealignment techniques including photoalignment. Numerous papers havereported on the stimuli-response of these materials and the ability toinduce shape transformation within LCN.

The thermomechanical properties of LCNs may be influenced bycopolymerizing difunctional LCMs with monofunctional LCMs to reduce themolecular weight between cross-links. LCE-like materials have beenprepared and characterized, exhibiting upward of 20% to 30% strain andsemisoft elasticity. However, this approach inherently dilutes themain-chain character of the LCN/LCE and known to limit the optimumassociation of orientation and elasticity or actuation. The preparationof main-chain type LCEs by oligomerizing LCMs via an aza-Michaeladdition reaction was been previously described, such as in U.S.Application Nos. 62/150,778; 15/135,087; 15/135,108; and 15/877,533 thedisclosures being incorporated herein by reference, each in theirentirety. While this approach is amenable to spatially patternedsurface-derived alignment and has enabled initial studies of thedirected self-assembly of LCEs, the method is slow (more than 24 hrs persample) and is limited in the range of accessible cross-link densities.

In some implementations, shape reconfigurability will be an importantaspect of robotic control. Stimuli-responsive shape change of monolithicelements is exhibited by a range of material platforms, including shapememory alloys (“SMAs”). SMAs achieve large force output but limiteddeformation, and are found in end use applications in medicine,automobiles, and aerospace. Recent explorations focus on soft materialsin which the mechanical response may be localized and potentiallyprogrammed, at the expense of output force. Natural musculo-skeletalsystems employ anisotropy to optimize function as well as grade theinterfacial interaction of stiff and soft elements.

Robust and high-throughput patterning LCEs has been enabled byexploiting directed self-assembly (both spatial and hierarchical) onto apatterned template surface. The molecular orientation governs theanisotropy of macroscopic mechanical response, and monolithic elementscomposed of these materials may be permanently “programmed” to exhibitreversible, stimuli-responsive shape transformations. A wide range ofshapes may be realized such as origami folds, arrays of cones, orarbitrary curvatures such as paraboloids. Notably, these materials arecontinuous in composition and absent of multi-material interfaces.Mechanical responses in these materials may be triggered by exposure toheat, light, electrical fields.

The tremendous shape transformation of LCEs may create useful work. LCEswith uniform orientation (via mechanical stretching) exert muscle-likecontractile force generating strains of up to 400%. A number of recentreports detail a comparatively distinctive approach to generating force.LCE sheets with spatially patterned orientation may act as out-of-planelifters, using shape change to generate considerable work over a largestroke, with a work capacity of as much as 2.6 J/kg (from a softmaterial of 50 m thickness). The extraordinary work capacity of thesematerials is attributable to the fundamentals of the shapetransformation. The spatial variation in the director profile dictatesthat the material must emanate into a third dimension, via stretch. Itis predicted in 21 that force outputs should correlate to increasing thefilm thickness. However, the achievable thickness of LCEs prepared bysurface anchoring is limited. For cell thicknesses exceeding roughly 50μm, the patterned alignment surface may no longer effectively prescribealignment through the entire cell, due to finite anchoring energies ofsurface interactions.

As such, there remains a need for improved materials, methods ofsynthesis, and greater adaptability for resulting LCE shapes andsurfaces and for LCEs that are arbitrarily thick so as to maintaincomplex director orientations.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention overcomes the foregoing problems and othershortcomings, drawbacks, and challenges of previous LCEs and associatedmethods of synthesis. While the invention will be described inconnection with certain embodiments, it will be understood that theinvention is not limited to these embodiments. To the contrary, thisinvention includes all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents asmay be included within the spirit and scope of the present invention.

According to embodiments of the present invention, shape-programmableliquid crystal elastomers are synthesized by filling an alignment cellwith liquid crystal monomers. The liquid crystal monomers align to asurface of the alignment cell and then are polymerized with a dithiolchain transfer agent. The alignment cell is configured to impose adirector orientation on a portion of the shape-programmable liquidcrystal elastomer.

Other embodiments of the present invention are directed to liquidcrystal elastomer laminates prepared by arranging a plurality of liquidcrystal elastomers such that a director orientation of each liquidcrystal elastomer of the plurality is in registered alignment with anadjacent liquid crystal elastomer of the plurality. The arrangement issecured and the plurality of liquid crystal elastomers cured.

Additional objects, advantages, and novel features of the invention willbe set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part willbecome apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of thefollowing or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objectsand advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means ofthe instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in theappended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed incolor. Copies of this patent or patent application publication withcolor drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and paymentof the necessary fee.

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the presentinvention and, together with a general description of the inventiongiven above, and the detailed description of the embodiments givenbelow, serve to explain the principles of the present invention.

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of the chemical structure ofconventional acrylates according to the prior art.

FIG. 2 is a flow chart illustrating a method of preparing elastomersaccording to embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 3 is perspective view of substrate preparation for use in themethod of FIG. 2.

FIGS. 4 and 4A are alternative, schematic views of exemplary systems forconducting a portion of the method of FIG. 2.

FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of an exemplary computer suitablefor conducting a portion of the method of FIG. 2.

FIGS. 6 and 7 are perspective and side elevational views (incross-section), respectively, of forming and filling a cell according tothe method of FIG. 2.

FIG. 8 diagrammatically illustrates a method of synthesizing LCEsaccording to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 9 is a schematic view of an exemplary dithiol chain transfer agentsuitable for use in some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 10 is a photograph of the AIR FORCE logo with an LCE film preparedin accordance with an embodiment of the present invention placed thereonto demonstrate clarity of the film.

FIGS. 11A and 11B graphically illustrate the glass transitiontemperatures of LCEs prepared in accordance with embodiments of thepresent invention.

FIG. 12 graphically illustrates chain growth according to embodiments ofthe present invention.

FIG. 13 is a photograph of the AIR FORCE logo with an LCE film preparedin accordance with an embodiment of the present invention placed thereonto demonstrate clarity of the film.

FIG. 14 graphically illustrates the anisotropic mechanical properties ofLCE films prepared in accordance with embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIGS. 15A-15C are nematic diffraction patterns for LCE films prepared inaccordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 16 graphically illustrates RTIF data demonstrating an increase inthiol incorporation with increase BDMT loading.

FIG. 17 graphically illustrates the fracturing of LCE films prepared inaccordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 18 graphically illustrates the mechanical response of LCE filmsprepared in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 19A and 19B demonstrate the birefringence associated with LCEfilms prepared in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 20A-20D are exemplary images of WAXS diffraction of LCE filmsprepared in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21 is a schematic illustrating surface alignment voxels for filmsprepared in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 22 is a birefringence image of a film prepared in accordance withembodiments of the present invention and having the surface alignment ofFIG. 21.

FIGS. 23A-23D illustrate an influence of surface alignment voxels ondeformation of the film of FIG. 22.

FIG. 24 graphically illustrates localization of strain within the filmillustrated in FIGS. 23A-23D.

FIG. 25 is a schematic representation of a +1 azimuthal defectconfigured to uniformly deform a film into a conical shape upon heating.

FIGS. 26A-26D are images of a film prepared with the +1 azimuthal defectof FIG. 25.

FIG. 27 graphically represents a cross-sectional profile of the film ofFIGS. 26A-26D.

FIG. 28 graphically represents stress and strain of films prepared inaccordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 29A-29D are images of a film prepared in accordance withembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 30 graphically represents a cross-sectional profile of the film ofFIGS. 29A-29D.

FIG. 31 is an exemplary image of WAXS diffraction of the LCE film ofFIGS. 29A-29D.

FIGS. 32A and 32B graphically represent glass transition temperaturesfor films prepared in accordance with embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 33 schematically represents a step-wise process of layering filmsin accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 34A and 34B are images of a pressure chamber configured to measureactuation of a film prepared in accordance with an embodiment of thepresent invention.

FIGS. 35A-35F are polarized microscopic images of multiple film layersprepared in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 36 graphically illustrates thermally-induced contraction of asingle film layer, a double film layer laminate, and a four film layerlaminate.

FIG. 37 graphically illustrates a cross-section profile of a single filmlayer, a double film layer laminate, and a four film layer laminate.

FIGS. 38A-38C are images of the deformation of the single film layer,the double film layer laminate, and the four film layer laminate.

FIG. 39 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary director profile.

FIG. 40 is a photograph of a four film layer laminate, imaged with thedirector profile of FIG. 39, under load of a glass slide and weight.

FIG. 41 graphically illustrates deformation of the single film layer,the double film layer laminate, and the four film layer laminate imagedwith the director profile of FIG. 39.

FIG. 42 graphically illustrates specific work of the single film layer,the double film layer laminate, and the four film layer laminate imagedwith the director profile of FIG. 39.

FIG. 43 is a photograph of a large stroke actuator having stackedfilms-glass coverslips under load.

FIGS. 44A-44C are photographs of cyclic deformation of a film preparedin accordance with an embodiment of the present invention at differenttemperatures.

FIG. 45 graphically illustrates consistency in stroke after 11 thermalcycles.

FIG. 46 graphically illustrates deformation of films prepared inaccordance with embodiments of the present invention and with 2×2defects and 3×3 defects.

FIG. 47 graphically illustrates specific work of films prepared inaccordance with embodiments of the present invention with 2×2 defectsand 3×3 defects.

FIG. 48 is a photograph of a four film layer laminate prepared inaccordance with an embodiment of the present invention under load thatis 2150 times the film weight.

FIG. 49 includes optical scans for comparison of deformation of a singlefilm layer, a double film layer laminate, a four film layer laminate,and a six film layer laminate at various environmental pressures.

FIG. 50 includes optical scans for comparison of deformation of a fourlayer film laminate over a ranges of pressures.

FIG. 51 includes optical scans for comparison of deformation of asix-layer film laminate over a range of pressures.

It should be understood that the appended drawings are not necessarilyto scale, presenting a somewhat simplified representation of variousfeatures illustrative of the basic principles of the invention. Thespecific design features of the sequence of operations as disclosedherein, including, for example, specific dimensions, orientations,locations, and shapes of various illustrated components, will bedetermined in part by the particular intended application and useenvironment. Certain features of the illustrated embodiments have beenenlarged or distorted relative to others to facilitate visualization andclear understanding. In particular, thin features may be thickened, forexample, for clarity or illustration.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Some embodiments of the present invention relate to N. P. GODMAN et al.,“Synthesis of elastomeric liquid crystalline polymer networks via chaintransfer,” ACS Macro Lett., Vol. 6 (2017) 1290-1295; the correspondingSupplemental Information, available at http://pubs.acs.org/T. GUIN etal., “Layered liquid crystal elastomer actuators,” Nat. Comm., Vol. 9(2018) 2531; the corresponding Supplemental Materials, available athttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-04911-4 andhttps://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-018-04911-4/MediaObjects/41467_2018_4911_MOESMI_ESM.pdf,and the supplemental movie provided athttps://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41467-018-04911-4/MediaObjects/41467_2018_4911_MOESM4_ESM.avi.The contents of these disclosures are incorporated herein by reference,each in its entirety.

Referring now to the figures, methods of preparing and using facilematerials chemistry platforms conducive to the surface-alignment ofliquid crystals are shown and described. The sensitivity of thematerials chemistry to surface-alignment is combined with photoalignmentof volumetric elements (also known as “voxels”) having discretedirectors (or domains of similar directors) of aligned liquid crystalelastomer (“LCE”) or liquid crystal network (“LCN”). Enabled by thelarge strain inherent to LCEs, the sensitivity of the material chemistryto surface-alignment, and the optical patterning methods, programmableshape change, and actuation in a monolithic element derived from avariety of complex director profiles may be achieved.

As used herein, “elastomer” refers to a polymer havingviscoelasticity—that is, being both viscous and elastic. These materialsgenerally have a glass transition temperature less than about 30° C. (orin some embodiments, less than 20° C.), low Young's modulus, and a highfailure strain, compared to other polymer materials.

As used herein, “liquid crystal” or “LC” refers to a state of matterhaving properties consistent with those of conventional liquids andthose of conventional crystals.

As used herein, “mesogen” is a part of a molecule or compound of aliquid crystal that is responsible for the liquid and crystalproperties.

As used herein, “macromers” are polymerizable molecules formed from achain-extension reaction of monomer precursors.

As used herein, “director” refers to an average molecular orientation ofthe mesogens comprising the liquid crystal.

As used herein, “voxel” refers to a discrete, three-dimensional areawithin a liquid crystal elastomer having a director.

As used herein, “domain” refers to a plurality of voxels having similardirectors.

As used herein, “acrylates” are salts, esters, and conjugate bases ofacrylic acid and its derivatives.

As used herein, “methacrylates” are salts, esters, and conjugate basesof methacrylic acid (“MAA”), CH₃CH₂CCOOH, and its derivatives.

As used herein, “thiols” are organosulfur compounds: HSRSH, wherein Rmay include alkyl chains, such as ethyl, propyl, or butyl groups.

As used herein, “vinyls” are ethenyl functional groups: —C₂H³

As used herein, “epoxides” are cyclic ethers having a three-atom ring:R¹R²COCR³R⁴.

As used herein, “amines” are compounds and functional groups comprisinga basic nitrogen atom, e.g., having a lone pair of electrons: RNH₂,wherein R may be an alkyl chain, for example, an n-butyl group.

As used herein, “diacrylates” are molecules having two acrylate groups.

As used herein, “nematic” refers to a liquid crystal in which themesogens are oriented in parallel, but not in well-defined planes.

As used herein, a “smectic” refers to a liquid crystal having mesogensoriented in parallel and arranged in well-defined planes.

As used herein, a “chiral phase” refers to a nematic liquid crystalpossessing a chiral center between well-defined planes.

As used herein, “defect” refers to a topological pattern of order withina liquid crystal elastomer. Defects may be characterized by strength andcharge.

As used herein, “glass transition temperature” or “T_(g)” refers thetemperature at which glass transition occurs. “Glass transition,” as itis used herein, is a reversible transition of a material from a “glassy”state to an elastomeric state.

As used herein, “carbon nanotubes” or “CNT” refers to tubular-shapedmolecular structures comprising carbon rings having a diameter on theorder of nanometers and lengths ranging from the order of nanometers tomillimeters.

In that regard and with reference now to a method 50 according to anembodiment of the present invention illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, asubstrate 52 is prepared (Block 54). Preparation of the substrate 52 mayinclude various combinations of cleaning, baking, washing, drying, andso forth, and as would be known by those of ordinary skill in the art.The substrate 52, itself, may comprise glass, poly(ethyleneterephthalate), or other inert materials.

An alignment layer 56 may then be applied to a cleaned surface 58 of thesubstrate 52 (Block 60). The alignment layer 56 generally comprising achromophore that, when illuminated, behaves as a molecular oscillatoruntil the absorption cross section is minimized with the finalorientation being 90° to the electric field vector of the incidentlight. Said another way, the chromophores of the alignment layer, whenexposed to light (such as light emitted from a laser), having particularpolarization, amplitude, and phase, may so orient themselves withrespect to the surface 58 so as to be orthogonal to the electric fieldvector of that light. Suitable alignment layer materials may comprise,for example, an azobenzene polymer, a stilbene polymer, a linearlypolymerizable polymer, or other suitable photosensitive material know tothose of ordinary skill in the art of liquid crystal alignment.Application of the alignment layer 56 may include dispersion (such asfrom a pipette or other like device) or printing, spinning to ensureuniformity, baking to set the alignment layer 56 and remove residualsolvent, and so forth.

With the alignment layer 56 applied, the alignment layer 56 may then beoptically patterned (continuation of Block 60). An exemplary system 62for optically patterning the alignment layer 56 according to oneexemplary method of the present invention is shown in FIG. 4. Generally,the system 62 includes a laser 64 (for example, a 445 nm laser), amoveable waveplate 66, and a moveable substrate support 68. The moveablewaveplate 66 is operably coupled to a controller 70, which is configuredto move the waveplate 66 with respect to a directionality of the beam72, which controls a polarization of the light to be used for patterningthe alignment layer 56 (FIG. 3). Although not specifically shown,movement of the waveplate 66 may include one or more motors (such as arotary motor), which may work in concert with movement of the substratesupport 68 to dynamically control irradiation over an area as small as100 μm². The system 62 is configured to manipulate the localsurface-alignment of liquid crystalline cells prepared with thealignment layer 56 (FIG. 3).

The controller 70 is operably coupled to a computer 74, which isdescribed in greater detail with respect to FIG. 5, and which may beconsidered to represent any type of computer, computer system, computingsystem, server, disk array, or programmable device such as multi-usercomputers, single-user computers, handheld devices, networked devices,or embedded devices, etc. The computer 74 may be implemented with one ormore networked computers 76 using one or more networks 78, e.g., in acluster or other distributed computing system through a networkinterface 80 (illustrated as “NETWORK I/F”). The computer 74 will bereferred to as “computer” for brevity's sake, although it should beappreciated that the term “computing system” may also include othersuitable programmable electronic devices consistent with embodiments ofthe invention.

The computer 74 typically includes at least one central processing unit82 (illustrated as “CPU”) coupled to a memory 84 along with severaldifferent types of peripheral devices, e.g., a mass storage device 86with one or more databases 88, an input/output interface 90 (illustratedas “I/O I/F” with associated display 87 and user input device 89), andthe Network I/F 80. The memory 84 may include dynamic random accessmemory (“DRAM”), static random access memory (“SRAM”), non-volatilerandom access memory (“NVRAM”), persistent memory, flash memory, atleast one hard disk drive, and/or another digital storage medium. Themass storage device 86 is typically at least one hard disk drive and maybe located externally to the computer 74, such as in a separateenclosure or in one or more networked computers 76, one or morenetworked storage devices (including, for example, a tape or opticaldrive), and/or one or more other networked devices 91 (including, forexample, a server).

The CPU 82 may be, in various embodiments, a single-thread,multi-threaded, multi-core, and/or multi-element processing unit (notshown) as is well known in the art. In alternative embodiments, thecomputer 74 may include a plurality of processing units that may includesingle-thread processing units, multi-threaded processing units,multi-core processing units, multi-element processing units, and/orcombinations thereof as is well known in the art. Similarly, the memory84 may include one or more levels of data, instruction, and/orcombination caches, with caches serving the individual processing unitor multiple processing units (not shown) as is well known in the art.

The memory 84 of the computer 74 may include one or more applications 92(illustrated as “APP.”), or other software program, which are configuredto execute in combination with the Operating System 94 (illustrated as“OS”) and automatically perform tasks necessary for operating thetransducers and/or reconstructing the images with or without accessingfurther information or data from the database(s) 88 of the mass storagedevice 86.

Those skilled in the art will recognize that the environment illustratedin FIG. 5 is not intended to limit the present invention. Indeed, thoseskilled in the art will recognize that other alternative hardware and/orsoftware environments may be used without departing from the scope ofthe invention.

Referring again to FIG. 4, the system 62 may further comprise a shutter100, a collimator 102, and a lens 104. Altogether, the system 62operates to focus the laser beam 72 onto each point on the alignmentlayer 56 (FIG. 3) of the substrate 52 having a desired polarization.Linear polarization angles from about 0° to about 180° with respect tothe beam propagation direction may be achieved. Exposure dosage iscontrolled through the shutter and power of the laser. Dose is dependenton the alignment layer, for example, for azobenzene dyes the exposureenergy may be 0.1 J/cm² and higher.

As shown, the system 62 may be configured to provide a focal spot havinga maximum dimensions ranging from nanometer scales to meter scales. Moreparticularly, a maximum dimension of about 100 μm may be easilyachieved. As such, a 200×200 pixelated square area (comprising 40,000pixels, 4 cm²), each pixel being 100 μm, and presuming a 10 μmsecexposure time per pixel, may take approximately 80 min to pattern.

Alternatively, and as is shown in FIG. 4A, a system 62′ is shown and issimilar to the system 62 of FIG. 4. In the illustrated system 62′, aspatial light modulator 101 replaces the waveplate 66 (FIG. 4). Thespatial light modulator 101 imposes a spatial modulation pattern ontolight from the laser 64 by altering at least one of amplitude, phase, orpolarization of the light. The modulated light may be focused by a firstlens 103 to form a Fourier transform at a plane 105. A second lens 107focuses the Fourier transform at the plane 105 to the image to bepatterned. According to an exemplary embodiment, using the spatial lightmodulation system 62′ enables simultaneous writing of 800×600independent polarizations.

Using the spatial light modulation system 62′ of FIG. 4A, it is possibleto pattern 10⁶ pixels, for example, with 15 μm resolution in about 1second per square centimeter. As such, the spatial light modulationsystem 62′ of FIG. 4A, as compared to the pixel-by-pixel system 62 ofFIG. 4, is capable of patterning substrates at a much higher rate.

Referring now again to FIG. 2, if necessary or otherwise desired,alignment of the optically patterned alignment layer 107 (FIG. 3) mayoptionally be preserved (Block 106). For instance, polymerizing a thinlayer of liquid crystal monomer (generally, several hundred nanometersthick, such as ranging from 300 nm to 500 nm) atop the patternedalignment layer 107 (FIG. 3) may be used.

Turning now to FIGS. 6 and 7, with continued reference to FIG. 2, aliquid crystal cell 108 may then be constructed (Block 110). In thatregard, prepared substrates 52, 52′ may be arranged such that thepatterned alignment layers 107, 107′ of each are facing inwardly,separated with spacers 112, and at least partially secured and/or sealedso as to form a cavity 114 there between. Additionally, oralternatively, spacers (not shown), such as micro-sized glass spheres,may be mixed into an adhesive (for example, an epoxy) such that thelayers 107, 107′ may be simultaneously spaced and secured and/or sealed.Size of the spacers 112 or micro-sized glass spheres may determine thefinal thickness of a resultant LC film and may range generally from tensof microns to hundreds of microns, or more particularly, for example,spacers 112 having a maximum dimension of 50 μm may be used.

The cavity 114 may then be filled with a nematic mixture of liquidcrystal monomers with CNTs configured to cross-link and to reversiblyshape change according to a complex programming using surface alignmentin accordance with an embodiment of the present invention (Block 112).

A method for preparing the nematic mixture according to an embodiment ofthe present invention is illustrated in FIG. 8. The illustrativechemical mechanism provides a synthetic strategy to quickly andefficiently prepare LCEs through the usage of chain transfer agents(“CTA”). Thiol-acrylate reactions may proceed either through acrylatechain growth or thiol chain transfer (chain termination). Herein,conventional LCMs (for example, C3M, C6M, and C11M) are reacted withdithiol monomers to maximize a number of reaction sites for thenon-liquid crystalline additive at low concentration.

Polymerization according to embodiments of the present invention isprimarily associated with acrylate homopolymerization of diacrylates.The homopolymerization, if left alone, would form glassy, denselycross-linked polymer networks. Introducing CTAs alters thehomopolymerization to a “chain extender” (similar to the role of theamine in the aza-Michael addition reaction in prior patent application)or a chain terminating site. Kinetic study of the reaction shows that arate of chain transfer exceeds propagation through extension, suggestingthe chain terminating site reaction is primary. Further, only 30% to 50%of thiol is incorporated into the network, which may confirm that thismonomer is primarily terminating propagating polymer chains. SuitableCTAs may include C2-C6 alkyl-dithiols or, more specific examples mayinclude ethane dithiol, propane dithiol, hexane dithiol, and1,4-benezenedimethanethiol.

Conventional methods for LCE formation operated by increasing themolecular weight between crosslinks in the polymer networks, whichincreases the molecular weight (e.g., the number of monomer units) andsuppresses the glass transition temperature and enhances viscoelasticnature in the material. For the embodiments of the present invention,while not wishing to be bound by theory, LCE reactions here create a“hyperbranched” polymer network via the competing chain extension andchain terminating reactions. Glass transition is suppressed, similar toconventional methods; however, suppression occurs via chain transferreactions. The amount of thiol incorporated into the LCE due to the useof the CTA ranges from about 30% to about 50%.

The polyacrylate materials according to embodiments of the presentinvention exhibit large, reversible shape changes with strains greater475%, rivalling properties observed in polysiloxane-based networks. Theapproach reported here is distinguished in that the material chemistryis readily amenable to surface alignment techniques. The facile natureof the material chemistry and the compatibility of these materials withdirected self-assembly methods could further enable paradigm shiftingend uses as designer substrates for flexible electronics or as actuatingsurfaces.

LCEs synthesized according to embodiments of the present invention aresoft, anisotropic materials that exhibit large shape transformationswhen subjected to various stimuli. The methods described herein are afacile approach to enhance the out-of-plane work capacity of thesematerials by an order of magnitude, to nearly 20 J/kg. The enhancementin force output is enabled by the development of a room temperaturepolymerizable composition used both to prepare individual films,organized via directed self-assembly to retain arrays of topologicaldefect profiles, as well as act as an adhesive to combine the LCElayers. The material actuator is shown to displace a load more than 2500times heavier than its own weight.

According to other embodiments, LCE films were formulated by mixingmesogenic diacrylates (RM82 and RM257) with a dithiol CTA (FIG. 9). Thedithiol additive reduces the crosslink density of the polyacrylate viachain transfer (primary) and chain extension (secondary). Theconcentration of RM82 and RM257 may be selected to suppress thenematic-crystallization phase transition, producing a supercoiledmixture which was meta-stable (more than 1 hr) to −20° C. The filmmaintains the surface-induced alignment without crystallizing at roomtemperature, which would happen with conventional films comprising onlyone or the other monomer. The broad phase range enabled processing andphotopolymerization to occur at room temperature. The LCE films may beoptically clear or may have a low haze, such as is shown in FIG. 10. Theglass transition temperature (T_(g)) of the LCEs prepared from thiscomposition was 26° C. (FIGS. 11A and 11B), similar to prior reports.Local organization of the monomeric mixture was directed byphotoalignment cells (PAAD-22, BEAM Co.). Various director profiles wereimposed into the material to localize the orientation of the liquidcrystalline monomers into topological defects, which are subsequentlyretained after photopolymerization.

Still other embodiments of the present invention are directed toeffectively increasing a thickness of LCEs so as to increase workcapacity. To do so, and according to another embodiment of the presentinvention, a plurality of films prepared in an accordance withembodiments here or according to a conventional manner; however, eachfilm of the plurality should have similar, or in some embodiments,identical composition and director profile. The harvested films may thenbe arranged and registered such that the director profiles are inalignment. At least some of the harvested films may be coated with themesogenic diacrylate composition used film formation prior toregistration. The registered films may be secured (such as by clamping)and then heated until the mesogenic diacrylate coating is no longerhazy, and the films are cooled such that the mesogenic diacrylatecoating takes on the residual surface alignment of the adjacent films.The films may then be cured, such as by a 365 nm UV light.

According to other embodiments, adhesives other than the mesogenicdiacrylate mixture may be used, such as those that may be cured with 365nm UV light.

The following examples illustrate particular properties and advantagesof some of the embodiments of the present invention. Furthermore, theseare examples of reduction to practice of the present invention andconfirmation that the principles described in the present invention aretherefore valid but should not be construed as in any way limiting thescope of the invention.

EXAMPLE 1—CHAIN TRANSFER SYNTHESIS

“C3M” (1,4-bis[4-(3-acryloyloxybutyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene),“C6M” (1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxyhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene),and “C11M”(1,4-bis[4-(11-acryloyloxyundecyloxy)-benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene) werepurchased from Synthon Chemicals. “BDMT” (1,4-benzenedimethanethiol) waspurchased from TCI America. Irgacure 651(2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone) was donated by BASF. Elvamide-8023Rwas donated by DuPont. PAAD-22 was purchased from Beam Co.

C3M, C6M, and C11M were recrystallized from methanol prior to usage. Allother materials were used as received unless otherwise noted.

Liquid crystal cells were prepared. Briefly, for cells patterned usingrubbed surfaces, Elvamide was dissolved in methanol at 0.125 wt %. Thissolution was then spin-coated onto plasma-cleaned glass and rubbed witha felt cloth to introduce uniaxial alignment. For photoaligned cells,PAAD-22 in dimethylformamide (0.33 wt %) was spin-coated ontoplasma-cleaned glass. The glass was then baked at 100° C. for 10 min.

For either cell type, two pieces of glass were glued together usingNorland Optical Adhesive 65 mixed with 30 μm glass spheres to set thecell thickness. The adhesive was UV cured for 5 min. After cellfabrication, photoalignment was carried out by exposing the cell to 100μmW cm⁻² of 445 nm laser light. The s-polarized output of a DPSS laserwas spatially filtered, apodized, and then passed through atwisted-nematic spatial light modulator (HoloEye LC-2002) to rotate theangle of linear polarization appropriately in each region. A moredetailed description of the photopatterning process employed is reportedin KOWALSKI et al., “Voxel resolution in the directed self-assembly ofliquid crystal polymer networks and elastomers,” Soft Matter, Vol. 13(2017) 4335-4340, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein byreference, in its entirety.

LCE formulations includes mesogen C3M, C6M, or C11M blended with BDMT.Irgacure 651 was used as a photoinitiator in concentrations of 0.5 wt %,and all formulations were prepared under red light. Monomer mixtureswere prepared in a vial and melted at about 150° C. while vortexingrepeatedly. Melted formulations in the isotropic state were filled intoa liquid crystal cell by capillary action at 100° C. The cell was thencooled to 10° C. below T_(NI) of the monomer and allowed to rest for 5min, which permitted nematic defects to relax and the monomer to takethe order dictated by the surface. Samples were then polymerized using365 nm UV light (ca. 150 μmW cm²) at 10° C. below T_(NI). Polymerizationwas carried out for 10 min, flipping the cell after 15 s and 5 min.

Initial compatibility screenings confirmed that alkyl dithiols generallyhad poor miscibility with C3M, C6M, and C11M. Hence,1,4-benzenedimethanethiol was used. Unless otherwise noted, all chemicalformulations and the resulting films are designated as CnM-XB, where nis a number of carbons between the mesogenic core and the acrylatemoiety and X is the molar equivalent of BDMT.

Differential scanning calorimetry was performed on a TA Q1000. Sampleswere heated under N₂ from room temperature to 200° C., cooled to −40° C.and heated to 200° C. Heating and cooling rates were set to 10° C./minfor the first heating cycle and 2° C./min for the second cycle. Datareported from the second heating cycle. The reported T_(g) values weretaken as the midpoint of the C_(p) change.

Strain controlled transient tensile tests were conducted using the RSAIII (TA Instruments). The prepared LCE films were cut into rectangularstrips with the dimensions of 10 μmm×2 μmm×0.03 μmm to ensure that thelength was at least five-times greater than the width to minimize edgeeffects. At least five samples perpendicular to and parallel with thedirector were tested, and all mechanical data reported as the average ±the standard deviation. The tensile tests were conducted in anenvironmental chamber with the temperature set to 25° C. to ensure thatthe testing conditions were the same for each sample. A strain rate of5% min⁻¹ was used. The strain to failure (ε_(f)), Young's modulus (E),and tensile stress at failure (σ_(f)) were calculated and reportedaccording to ATSM Standard D638-14.

Real time FTIR (RTIR) measurements were performed on a FTIR (NicoletiS50 FTIR, Thermo Scientific) at room temperature. Acrylate conversionwas measured as the decrease in the area of the peak at 810 cm⁻¹. Thiolconversion was measured as the decrease in the area of the peak at 2570cm⁻¹. Series scans were taken 1 scan per 0.83 sec. The samples werepressed in between sodium chloride plates. Light exposure was done witha 365 nm LED light (Omnicure LED 365 nm, LX 500).

A Rigaku Ultrax 18 using Cu Kα radiation was used to collect 2D wideangle X-ray scattering patterns. The sample was positioned 73 μmm fromthe imaging plate. The beam was collimated with a pinhole collimatorwith a diameter of 0.2 μmm. Azimuthal integration was utilized todetermine the Hermans orientational order parameter. The backgroundlevel was determined from featureless scattering from the 2θ scan.

3D profiles are obtained by first coating films in a thin layer of TiO₂(Helling 3D Laser Scanning Anti-Glare Spray). Deformation offree-standing films was triggered by heating, and the resulting heightprofiles are measured in-situ using a structured-illumination 3D scanner(Keyence VR3200).

The gel fractions of the LCN/LCE films were determined as followed: fivesamples of each formulation (planar alignment, approximately 20 μmm×10μmm×50 μm) were first dried under high vacuum overnight at 100° C.before recording the initial weight. Samples were then placed in 10 μmLof dicholoromethane for 72 hrs before removal followed by drying at roomtemperature for 24 hrs. Samples were then dried at 100° C. and highvacuum for 24 hrs before measuring the final weight. Data is reported asthe average ± the standard deviation.

The phase behavior of the monomer solution was investigated usingpolarizing optical microscopy with a heating stage.

The kinetics of radical initiated copolymerization ofmulti-thiol/di(meth)acrylate systems have been extensively studied. Thetwo competing reaction pathways of thiol-mediated chain transfer andacrylate homopolymerization (chain growth) may be investigated by usingreal time infrared (“RTIR”) spectroscopy to monitor the conversion ofacrylate (C═C) and thiol (S—H) bonds.

The CnM-0.5B formulations showed near complete conversion of theacrylate groups within 60 sec of UV irradiation, but the conversion ofthiol groups was much lower (40% to 55%, FIGS. 11A and 11B). Hence,chain growth occurs at a faster rate than chain transfer, which isconsistent with similar nonmesogenic systems. As illustrated in FIG. 12,a ratio of acrylate-to-thiol functional groups converted with timeshowed similar trends regardless of the LCM carbon spacer employed.Therefore, differences in material properties arise from changes incross-link density due to the spacer length as opposed to changes inacrylate reactivity.

Monodomain samples were prepared in surface-aligned cells, enforcingplanar alignment of the nematic director. Upon photopolymerization, allsamples were optically transparent (FIG. 13) and demonstratedanisotropic mechanical properties (FIG. 14). The addition of 0.5 molequiv of BDMT to either C3M, C6M, or C11M (9.5 wt % to 12.6 wt %)strongly influenced the mechanical properties of the LCEs. When thefilms were stretched parallel to the director, only slight increases instrains-to-failure (ε_(f)) were observed, and all films were fracturedbefore 40% strain with a strain rate of 5% min⁻¹. Notably, the Young'smodulus (E) decreased over an order of magnitude from 1250±80 MPa forC3M-0.5 to 92.9±7.5 MPa for C11M-0.5. This decrease in E is related tothe increase in the molecular weight between cross-links attributable tothe longer spacer length of C11M. Uniaxial extension perpendicular tothe principal axis of the film demonstrated three distinct features asthe spacer length was increased: (1) an exponential increase inε_(f)(51.3±10.1% to 445.1±13.3%), (2) a decrease in E of almost twodecades (641±34 MPa to 9.1±1.0 MPa), (3) and a sizable decrease in theonset of the soft elastic plateau (15.2±0.6 MPa to 2.8±0.2 MPa).Complete listings of mechanical data and film characterization are givenin Tables 1 and 2, below.

Adding a thiol-based CTA into commercially-available LCMs was astraightforward method to quickly and effectively generate robust LCEswith elastomeric properties that rival polysiloxane LCEs. The syntheticstrategy detailed here does not employ timely oligomerization reactionsthat may not be amenable to industrial scale up. WAXS spectroscopyconfirmed the retention of the characteristic nematic diffractionpatterns for C3M-0.5B and C6M-0.5B (FIGS. 15A-15C) as well as providedevidence of a cybotactic nematic phase in C11M-0.5B. LCE films examinedhere did not exhibit crystallization over time as has recently beenreported for similar material compositions.

TABLE 1 σ_(f), ∥ ε_(f), ∥ E, ∥ σ_(f) ε_(f) E Soft-elastic (%) (MPa)(MPa) (%) (MPa) (MPa) plateau (MPa) C3M-0.5B 46.9 ± 21.3 ± 1250 ± 51.3 ±13.5 ± 641 ± 15.2 ± 4.6 1.6 80 10 1.1 34 0.6 C6M-0.5B 66.4 ± 38.3 ± 697± 127 ± 22.0 ± 419 ± 13.6 ± 6.9 2.4 13 20 4.6 18 0.6 C11M 42.9 ± 9.72 ±725 ± 76.2 ± 16.5 ± 260 ± 14.1 ± 1.8 0.84 18 5.5 1.0 11 0.5 C11M-0.25B56.4 ± 22.7 ± 380 ± 374 ± 10.2 ± 76.9 ± 6.79 ± 6.7 1.5 14 11 1.3 7.50.85 C11M-0.5B 25.9 ± 37.8 ± 92.9 ± 445 ± 7.2 ± 9.13 ± 2.85 ± 3.0 3.97.5 13 2.2 1.0 0.19 C11M-0.75B 6.87 ± 43.5 ± 56.9 ± 486 ± 1.52 ± 3.99 ±0.888 ± 0.41 1.7 3.6 20 0.23 0.39 0.078 C6M-C11M-1B 25.5 ± 47.3 ± 59.6 ±437 ± 2.71 ± 3.76 ± 1.26 ± 3.2 1.7 1.7 29 0.88 0.46 0.14

TABLE 2 Gel T_(NI) ^(a) T_(g) ^(b) Fraction (° C.) (° C.) S ^(c) (%)C3M-0.5B 112.5 44.2 0.31 97.9 ± 1.0 C6M-0.5B 105.0 31.3 0.43 97.8 ± 1.2C11M 104 43.1 0.39 99.3 ± 0.6 C11M-0.25B 88.0 30.4 0.45 97.4 ± 1.2C11M-0.5B 76.5 8.1 0.48 96.0 ± 0.6 C11M-0.75B 63.0 −1.5 0.51 91.3 ± 2.3C6M-c11M-1B 53.5 8.4 0.52 98.9 ± 0.2Where (a) was determined by polarized optical microscopy with secondcooling at 1° C./min; (b) was determined by scanning calorimetry withsecond cooling at 2° C./min; and (c) was determined by Wide Angle X-rayScattering (“WAXS”).

The ratio of BDMT was varied to further explore the utility of CTAs inthe fabrication of LCEs. Films were prepared with 0 mol equiv, 0.25 molequiv, 0.5 mol equiv, and 0.75 mol equiv of BDMT (C11-XB). Thepolymerization of C11M with an equimolar amount of BDMT (C11M-1B) didnot result in a cohesive, free-standing film. RTIR showed an increase inthiol incorporation within the LCE as the BDMT loading was increased(FIG. 16), and all films fractured before 45% strain (FIG. 17) uponelongation parallel to the director.

The influence of the CTA concentration on the resulting mechanicalresponse of C11M-XB films is illustrated in FIG. 18, which plots thestrain measured in response to an applied stress with the nematicdirector oriented perpendicular to stretch direction. Increasing the CTAconcentration dramatically affects the soft elasticity of the LCEs, bothin the threshold stress and range for which soft elasticity is observed.For comparison, neat C11M films exhibit a linear elastic response untilε=5% before yielding. The nonlinear response after the yield point islikely due to mesogens attempting to rotate, but the high cross-linkprevents complete reorientation. The addition of 0.25 mol of BDMT (5.0wt %) increased ε_(f) by 300% and C11M-0.25B maintains a semisoftelastic plateau, unlike C11M. The semisoft elastic response ofC11M-0.25B indicates incomplete mesogen reorientation.

Increasing the concentration of BDMT within the network further resolvesthe soft-elastic plateau and increases the fracture strain to 486+20%(C11M-0.75B). Increasing the concentration of BDMT also lowers themodulus from 260+11 to 4.0±0.4 MPa for neat C11M and C11M-0.75B,respectively.

Glassy liquid crystalline networks prepared from diacrylate LCMs producefilms with high optical clarity and birefringence. FIGS. 19A and 19Bshow typical C11M-0.5B film and demonstrate the birefringence associatedwith the fabricated LCEs. Maintaining a concentration of BDMT belowabout 15 wt % yielded materials with optical properties rivalling LCNfilms prepared from the neat LCM and elastic deformation that rivalpolysiloxane LCEs. The WAXS spectra for C11M-XB films all showedanisotropic diffraction patterns with distinctive diffuse, four-point“eyebrow” patterns that are characteristic of a cybotactic packing ofthe nematic phase (FIGS. 20A-20D). C11M-XB films also exhibited adecrease in the T_(g) and gel fraction with the corresponding decreasein cross-link density (Table 2, above).

The material chemistries according to embodiments of the presentinvention are readily amenable to surface alignment, which areillustrated in FIG. 21, where a film was prepared with directororientation varied by 22.5° per voxel across a length of the film. Theeffect of director orientation on the local elastic properties of thefilm may be observed in the birefringence changes of each region whenthe film is placed under cross polarizers (FIG. 22). Deformation of thematerial and its influence on the local orientation within each voxelare apparent in FIGS. 23A-23D. The mesogens aligned parallel to theforce direction exhibit linear elastic behavior under uniaxial tensilestrain while the other regions exhibit increasing degrees of softelastic behavior.

C11M-0.5B films were globally elongated to 125%, and the localization ofstrain within each region of the LCE film is shown in FIG. 24. For eachvariation of 22.5° in orientation, there is a corresponding increase inthe local strain that is associated with the amount that the mesogenswithin each region are able to reorient. The maximum contrast ratiobetween perpendicular and parallel director profiles is about 19.

The C11M-0.5B LCEs were organized into a director field described as a+1 azimuthal defect (FIG. 25) which will uniformly deform into a conicalshape upon heating. Removal of the LCE film from the alignment cell andcooling to room temperature caused the film to spontaneously deform intoan anticone (saddle) geometry (FIGS. 26A-26D). The presence of theanticone was the result of the elevated polymerization temperature usedto prepare the C11M-0.5B film (65° C.). Cooling the materials to roomtemperature (25° C.) may result in a slight increase in the nematicorder, inducing local average length changes within the network whichmanifests as residual strain.

An optical profilometer was used to quantify the 3D shape transformationof C11M-0.5B (FIGS. 26A-26D). Heating the film reduced the nematic orderand allowed the sample to return to a flat state. Increasing thetemperature further produces the expected conical shape. FIG. 27 plots across-sectional cutout of the profile of the film to illustrate theshape transformation with the corresponding increase in temperature. TheLCE film prepared from C11M-0.5B transforms from negative Gaussiancurvature to flat and ultimately to positive Gaussian curvature bysimply changing the temperature.

In certain applications, however, it may be preferred that the roomtemperature form be flat and not curved. Leveraging the tremendousformulation flexibility inherent to this synthetic approach, a new LCEformulation (C6M-C11M-1B) was prepared that is nematic at roomtemperature (25° C.). Surprisingly, planar, monodomain C6M-C11M-1B filmsdisplay lower E and soft-elastic plateaus than C11M-0.5B, but alsoexhibit comparable total elongation (Table 1 and FIG. 28) even thoughthe material is composed of LCMs with various spacer lengths. Whenphotopolymerized in a +1 azimuthal defect director profile, theresulting LCE is virtually flat, with an almost imperceptible anticonecurvature at slightly below room temperature (20° C., FIG. 29A). Thefilm completely flattens out when heated to 40° C. (FIG. 29B), andfurther heating to 200° C. (FIG. 29D) results in a cone with a “circustent” shape with a quantifiable diameter contraction (FIG. 30). Thisformulation is absent the cybotactic nematic phase seen in the WAXSdiffraction (FIG. 31) for seen in C11M-XB samples.

EXAMPLE 2

The LCE films examined here were formulated by mixing mesogenicdiacrylates (RM82 and RM257) with a dithiol CTA (FIGS. 1-3). RM82(1,4-bis-[4-(6-acryloyloxyhexyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene) andRM257 (1,4-Bis-[4-(3-acryloyloxypropyloxy)benzoyloxy]-2-methylbenzene)were purchased from Synthon Chemicals, and recrystallized from methanolbefore use. LCE formulations were prepared by adding 69 wt % RM82, 20 wt% RM257, 11 wt % BDMT (benzenedimethanethiol, Sigma Aldrich), with 1 wt% Irgacure 651 (BASF), and 0.5 wt % butylated hydroxytoluene to a glassvial and thoroughly mixed. The concentration of RM82 and RM257 in themixture was selected to suppress the nematic-crystallization phasetransition, producing a supercoiled mixture which was meta-stable (morethan 1 hr) to −20° C.

50 μm thick liquid crystal cells, prepared as described above werefilled via capillary action at 90° C. in the isotropic state and cooledslowly to 25° C. over 5 min. The cells were then exposed to 365 nm UV(120 μmW/cm²) light for 20 min to initiate photopolymerization.

The broad phase range enabled processing and photopolymerization tooccur at room temperature. The LCE films are optically clear. The glasstransition temperature (T_(g)) of the LCEs prepared from thiscomposition was 26° C., (FIGS. 32A and 32B) similar to prior reports.Local organization of the monomeric mixture was directed byphotoalignment cells (PAAD-22, BEAM Co.). Various director profiles wereimposed into the material to localize the orientation of the liquidcrystalline monomers into topological defects, which are subsequentlyretained after photopolymerization.

An approach to increase the work capacity of these material systems wasto increase the thickness of the LCEs. However, the physics of surfaceanchoring and the anchoring strength of the photoalignment layer limitthe maximum thickness for retention of surface-induced director profilesto about 50 μm.

Referring to FIG. 33, and after polymerization and under crossedpolarizers, two LCE films were harvested by soaking the cells indeionized water for 2 hrs. Care was taken to deconstruct the cells in amanner such that LCE films adhere to one of the glass substrates, toprevent wrinkling. Two films, both adhered to a single glass substrate,were placed on a hot plate at 50° C. A drop of the LCE formulation wasplaced on one of the films, and the films clamped together. The filmswere briefly heated using a 100° C. heat gun until the adhesive layerwas no longer hazy, and then allowed to cool to 25° C. over 5 min. Theadhesive was cured with 365 nm UV light for 20 min. The process wasrepeated until the desired number of layers was achieved.

From this two layer laminate, additional layers may be added to realizeup to 300 μm thick LCE laminates examined here. Due to the consistencyin the materials chemistry acting as both the LCE layer and adhesive, nodelamination was observed.

Phase transitions, birefringence, and film quality were measured viapolarized optical microscopy (“POM”) (Nikon) in transmission mode, andthe temperature was controlled by a Mettler Toledo HS82 heat stage.Shape change of homogenous planar films, floating on silicone oil and 5μm glass spacers, as a function of temperature was also determined usingPOM. Dynamic scanning calorimetry (“DSC”) (TA Instrument Q1000) wasperformed under nitrogen from −40° C. to 120° C. for monomer mixturesand 0° C. to 300° C. for cured films in hermetically sealed pans at 2°C./min. The nematic transition determined from the peak of the heat fluxtrace on second cooling, and the glass transition was determined fromthe peak of the derivative of the heat flux trace. Shape of actuatedsamples was measured through structured-illumination opticalprofilometry (Keyence VR-3200).

To measure lifting force and stroke of the actuation, 1 cm×1 cm sampleswere placed on a resistive heater, loaded with weight, and heated to180° C. The samples were loaded with successively heavier tungstenweights, glass slides, or both after each test, and the height wasmeasured by a CCD camera at the plane of the films. A ruler was alwaysimaged frame and plane to calibrate the distance, and the filmdisplacement was measured using ImageJ. All tests were performed byloading the sample and then heating.

Actuation under pressure was measured using a homebuilt pressure chamber(FIG. 34A), and the resultant shape change monitored in situ via opticalprofilometry. The sample was placed in the central hole, with a seriesof small holes cut out under the sample to allow the back to be exposedto ambient pressure. An exploded drawing is displayed in FIG. 34B. Thechamber was heated to 100° C. using resistive heating silicone elementsand allowed to equilibrate for 30 min at 100° C. The chamber was thenpressurized until the films collapsed. The shape change was monitoredevery 0.2 psi.

The orientation of the laminated films was confirmed with polarizedmicroscopy to confirm the registry of the LCE layers and that theadhesive layers are taking on the order of the LCE surfaces (FIGS.35A-35F). The thermally induced contraction (FIG. 36) of the uniaxiallyaligned LCEs was nearly identical for a single layer, double layer, andfour layer laminates. The contraction measured was determined fromdimensional changes observed in the LCE films upon heating.

When heated, nematic LCEs reversibly contract along the liquidcrystalline director and expand in the orthogonal directions. Thisanisotropic contraction, when subject to spatial variation dictated bythe directed self-assembly of localized surface alignment, may result indramatic out-of-plane shape deformation. A well-understood andpredictable director profile, the azimuthal+1 topological defect, wasused. The director profile is inset in FIG. 37, where the mesogensorganize in concentric rings around a central region (point defect).This pattern was predicted and experimentally confirmed to deform into acone upon heating.

The deformation of single layer, double layer, and four layer LCElaminates was quantified by structured-illumination optical profilometry(Keyence VR-3000). The LCE film and laminates actuate into cones uponheating. The amplitude of the peak height (3.4 μmm, about 70 times thefilm thickness) and the angle of the cone tip are nearly identical amongfilms of 50 μm (single layer), 102 μm (double layer), and 210 μm (fourlayer) thickness (FIGS. 38A-38C). The increased thickness of thelaminates does not diminish the shape transformation. The insensitivityof the shape-morphing to film thickness was in agreement with aprediction of that the deformation of an LCE sheet into a cone should belargely independent of sheet thickness, except for slight deviation nearthe tip. The agreement evident in FIGS. 37-38C was strong, indirectevidence that each LCE layer as well as the adhesive interfaces arecooperatively deforming.

In a previous report, a 2×2 array of +1 topological defects in a 50 μmthick LCE film was shown to lift up to 150 times its weight with astroke of 1 μmm. The stroke per force output of the single layer LCEfilms translates to a specific work capacity of 2.6 J/kg.

The characterization and potential actuation force of the LCE laminateswere assessed. The 1×1 cm LCE films were patterned into a 2×2 arrays ofradial+1 topological defects (director profile illustrated in FIG. 39)were prepared. Single, double, and four layer LCE laminates were heatedwith a resistive heating element. A piece of glass (28.7 g, 1100 timesfilm weight) was placed on top of the films, which was loaded withweight. As illustrated in the representative photograph in FIG. 40, thedeformation of the films was observable under load. The deformationunder load for one, two, and four layer LCE laminates are presented inFIG. 41. Similar to the unloaded case in FIGS. 38A-38C, the stroke ofthe LCEs under load was relatively unaffected with increasing thickness.However, the increase in thickness increases the output forcedramatically. The four layer LCE laminate (210 μm thick) produces 280μmN of force at a stroke of 1.6 μmm. As illustrated in FIG. 42, thespecific work may reach nearly 19 J/kg. The four layer LCE laminate withthe director configuration described in FIG. 39 may lift over 1100 timesthe weight of the film itself, a 100 times improvement in specific workwhen compared to a single layer LCE.

When selecting actuators both force output and stroke length areimportant considerations. So-called piezoelectric stacks may beemulated. As is evident in FIG. 43, a large stroke actuator comprisingfilm stacked on top of each other and separated by a rigid substrate(glass coverslips). With three LCE layers, a stroke exceeding 6 μmm wasachieved while still lifting 120 times the weight of the assembleddevice.

A distinguishing characteristic of LCEs in contrast to othershape-changing polymeric systems is the reversibility and resistance tofatigue. Shape memory effects in polymers must be reprogrammed aftereach actuation. The robustness of the actuation of the LCE films wasexamined. FIGS. 44A and 44B contrasts the deformation of an LCE filmunder the load of nearly 1 g. There was little distinguishabledifference in stroke or shape of LCE film after 10 thermal cycles. FIG.44C is representative of the flat state reached by the LCE films aftereach cycle; FIG. 45 summarizes the consistency in the stroke observablein 11 thermal cycles.

The study included examining a 2×2 array of +1 topological defects in a1 cm² film. The force output onto the loaded substrate should besensitive to the number of contact points. To illustrate this, LCE filmswith a 3×3 array of +1 defects were prepared in 1 cm² films. Byincreasing the number of defects (contact points) from four to nine, thetotal force output increases from 300 μmN (FIG. 41) to 560 μmN (FIG.46). Evident in FIG. 47, the four layer LCE laminate composed of the 3×3array of +1 defects was able to lift 2150 times the weight of the filmitself. A four layer LCE film may lift 56 g nearly 0.5 μmm (FIG. 48).

Evident in FIG. 46, the stroke was significantly decreased for the 3×3arrays in the 1 cm² film when compared to the 2×2 arrays in the 1 cm²films examined in FIG. 41. The direct comparison of 2×2 and 3×3 arraysin FIGS. 46 and 47 are from samples in which the dimensions of eachdefect region was 0.33×0.33 cm. These LCE laminates exhibit identicalstroke lengths. However, evident in FIG. 46, the output force wasconsiderably increased by increasing the number of contact points.Conceivably, employing large area patterning techniques and substratesnot available to us in our laboratory could allow for preparing largerarea films composed of 1000s of contact points.

Numerous end-use applications of LCEs have been proposed, such asirises, biomimetic actuators, valves, and shape-changing lenses. Onepotential aerospace application may include reconfigurable topographicalsurface features to manipulate flow. The deformation of the LCElaminates under positive pressure was also examined. LCE films were onceagain patterned with radial+1 topological defects. The deformation of asingle defect subsumed in the center of a 12 μmm diameter film wasexamined. The LCE laminates were placed in a pressure chamber where theback (or bottom) of the film was maintained at ambient pressure whilethe front (or top) was subjected to positive pressure. The entirechamber was heated and then the shape of the film was measured viaoptical profilometry.

FIG. 49 presents the optical scans of single, double, four, and sixlayer LCE laminates. Direct heating of the films in ambient pressureconditions results in the expected conical deformations (0 kPa).Notably, the deformation of the films was less than that observed infree standing films, largely attributable to film anchoring. However,upon adding even slight positive pressure, the single layer film (50 μm)immediately loses its shape, compressing into the pressure chamber. Thetwo layer LCE laminate behaves similarly. Informed by the prior results,the four layer LCE laminate (210 μm) withstands much higher loads andwas able to maintain a cone-like shape at 1.5 kPa of pressure. A sixlayer LCE laminate (320 μm) was able to withstand over 7 kPa (more than1 psi) and still maintain a conical shape. Profiles of actuated samplesare shown in FIGS. 50 and 51.

As described herein, embodiments to approaching thick LCE films capableof large force output and stroke are described. Upon exposure to thermalstimulus, the LCE laminates deform into the expected shapes. Notably,despite the increase in film thickness in the LCE laminates, thedeformations of the materials (e.g., the stroke) remain constant. Theincrease in thickness allow the laminates to impart work on objects morethan 2000 times heavier than the laminates themselves. End-useapplications in aerospace, such as reconfigurable topographicalsurfaces, require deformation to positive pressure. Six layer LCElaminates are shown to deform up to 7 kPa pressure and retain theexpected conical deformation.

While the present invention has been illustrated by a description of oneor more embodiments thereof and while these embodiments have beendescribed in considerable detail, they are not intended to restrict orin any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail.Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to thoseskilled in the art. The invention in its broader aspects is thereforenot limited to the specific details, representative apparatus andmethod, and illustrative examples shown and described. Accordingly,departures may be made from such details without departing from thescope of the general inventive concept.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of synthesizing a shape-programmableliquid crystal elastomer, the method comprising: filling an alignmentcell with liquid crystal monomers, wherein the liquid crystal monomersalign to a surface of the alignment cell; and polymerizing the liquidcrystal monomers with a dithiol chain transfer agent, wherein thealignment cell is configured to impose a director orientation on aportion of the shape-programmable liquid crystal elastomer.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the liquid crystal monomers are mesogenicdiacrylates.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the mesogenic diacrylateis selected from C3M, C6M, and C11M.
 4. The method of claim 1, whereinthe dithiol chain transfer agent is a C2-C6 alkyl-dithiol.
 5. The methodof claim 4, wherein the dithiol chain transfer agent is selected fromethane dithiol, propane dithiol, hexane dithiol, and1,4-benezenedimethanethiol.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein an amountof thiol incorporated into the liquid crystal elastomer ranges fromabout 30% to about 50%.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the liquidcrystal monomers comprise a mixture of a first mesogenic diacrylate anda second mesogenic diacrylate.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein aselection of a ratio of the first mesogenic diacrylate to the secondmesogenic diacrylate suppresses nematic-crystallization phasetransition.
 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: introducing aphotoinitiator before filling the alignment cell.
 10. The method ofclaim 9, wherein the photoinitiator is2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone.
 11. The method of claim 9, whereinthe photoinitiator and liquid crystal monomers are melted before fillingthe alignment cell.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein polymerizingliquid crystal monomers with a dithiol chain transfer agent includesapplying ultraviolet light.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein thefilled alignment cell is cooled before the liquid crystal monomers arepolymerized.
 14. A liquid crystal elastomer laminate comprising: aplurality of shape-programmable liquid crystal elastomers prepared inaccordance with claim 1, the plurality of shape-programmable liquidcrystal elastomers being clamped and heated to form the laminate. 15.The liquid crystal elastomer laminate of claim 14, wherein the imposeddirectors of the plurality of shape-programmable liquid crystalelastomers are aligned.
 16. The liquid crystal elastomer laminate ofclaim 14, wherein a layer of mesogenic diacrylate is placed betweenadjacent ones of the plurality of shape-programmable liquid crystalelastomers.
 17. A method for preparing a liquid crystal elastomerlaminate, the method comprising: arranging a plurality of liquid crystalelastomers such that a director orientation of each liquid crystalelastomer of the plurality is in registered alignment with an adjacentliquid crystal elastomer of the plurality; securing the arrangement ofthe plurality of liquid crystal elastomers; and curing the plurality ofliquid crystal elastomers.
 18. The method of claim 17, furthercomprising: coating at least one liquid crystal elastomer of theplurality with a mesogenic diacrylate.
 19. The method of claim 17,wherein curing the plurality of liquid crystal elastomers furthercomprises: heating the plurality of liquid crystal elastomers; andapplying ultraviolet light to the plurality of liquid crystalelastomers.
 20. The method of claim 17, wherein at least one liquidcrystal elastomer of the plurality is a shape-programmable liquidcrystal elastomer comprising: cross-linked and polymerized nematic,isotropic monomers having the director orientation.